The Amazon Brand Referral Bonus is a program available to sellers who are Brand Registered in the US only and gives them a category-based credit on legitimate sales that came from properly tagged traffic from off-Amazon. Amazon tracks those sales via Amazon Attribution, deducts any returns or cancellations, and applies the final bonus to future referral fees,โrather than paying it out as an immediate advertising rebate.
| Reader question | Required answer |
|---|---|
| What is it? | A category-based credit on qualifying sales generated through properly tagged off-Amazon traffic. Amazon applies the finalized credit against future referral fees. |
| Who qualifies? | Eligible US sellers that meet the current Professional selling plan, Brand Registry, account-role, marketplace, and program requirements. |
| How is it tracked? | Through correctly configured Amazon Attribution tags attached to eligible off-Amazon links or ads. |
| When is the credit visible? | Amazon first records attributed activity and later finalizes the credit after applicable processing, cancellation, and return adjustments. |
| How much is it? | The rate is category-specific. Check the current US Seller Central rate table and its calculation basis before forecasting a credit. |
Amazonโs public guidance confirms that the program is designed for US seller brand owners, requires Amazon Attribution measurement, and generally produces credits after a two-month processing period. Category rates and eligibility rules should still be checked in Seller Central before launching a campaign.
What Is Amazon Brand Referral Bonus?
The Amazon Brand Referral Bonus, or "BRB," is a credit-with-fees program available for certain brands based inโthe United States. When a qualifying purchase is credited to a tagged off-Amazon campaign,โAmazon may calculate a category-based bonus and can then apply the final bonus amount against future referral fees.
The bonus is not applied toward the cost of the original Google, Meta, email, or creator campaign. Instead, eligible bonuses accumulateโas credits that get applied to your referral fees on future sales. Amazonโs public example shows that you can use a credit to offset one referral fee, or you can use a credit across moreโthan one future referral fee until the credit is used up.
That difference is important when youโare doing the math on performance:
- Amazon Attribution tracks the shopping behavior.
- Brand Referral Bonus gives fee credit potential.
- Yourโexternal platform will still charge its usual media or partner fee.
The promotion can enhance aโcampaignโs economics, but it doesnโt magically transform a losing campaign into a winner. You still have to take returns, product margins, mediaโcosts, creator fees, agency costs, discounts, fulfillment costs, and reporting lags into consideration.
Brand Referral Bonus vs. Similar Amazon Programs
Several Amazon programs use similar terms but serve different purposes.
| Program or cost | What it does | How it differs from BRB |
|---|---|---|
| Amazon Brand Referral Bonus | Provides eligible seller brand owners with credits based on qualifying off-Amazon attributed sales. | This is the fee-credit program covered in this guide. |
| Amazon Attribution | Measures how non-Amazon campaigns contribute to Amazon activity and sales. | Attribution provides tracking; it does not replace BRB enrollment. |
| Amazon Associates | Allows approved publishers and creators to earn commissions from qualifying purchases. | It is an affiliate commission program, not a seller fee-credit program. |
| Amazon referral fees | Fees Amazon charges sellers when an item sells. | BRB credits may offset future referral fees, but the referral fee itself is a standard selling cost. |
| Brand Representative Bonus | A separate New Seller Incentive with its own eligibility rules, sales thresholds, time limits, and credits. | It is not the same as Brand Referral Bonus and should not be used to explain BRB rates or mechanics. |
| Consumer referral offers | Promotions that may reward customers for referring another customer. | These are not seller marketing credits and should not be confused with BRB. |
Amazon Attribution currently supports measurement for eligible sellers, vendors, agencies, and other approved advertisers. However, Amazonโs public BRB guidance specifically frames the bonus as an opportunity for US seller brand owners.
The similarly named Brand Representative Bonus is a separate New Seller Incentive. Its enrollment and first-brand-owner requirements are separate from Brand Referral Bonus rules.
For a deeper explanation of partner commissions, read the Amazon affiliate program for sellers.
Who Is Eligible for Amazon Brand Referral Bonus in the US?
Amazonโs public information identifies three core requirements:
- You sell through the US Amazon store.
- You use a Professional selling plan.
- Your brand is enrolled in Amazon Brand Registry.
Amazon Attribution guidance also identifies Brand Registry sellers with brand representative status as eligible users of the measurement platform. Because roles and program permissions can change, confirm that the correct selling account and brand role are connected before creating campaign tags.
Use this checklist before you plan BRB revenue or credits:
| Eligibility check | What to confirm |
|---|---|
| Marketplace | The campaign and products belong to the US Amazon store. |
| Selling plan | The seller account has an active Professional selling plan. |
| Brand Registry | The brand is enrolled and connected to the correct Seller Central account. |
| Brand role | The account has the current role required to access Amazon Attribution and BRB benefits. |
| Program enrollment | The brand is enrolled in Brand Referral Bonus, not only Amazon Attribution. |
| Products | The advertised products belong to the enrolled brand and meet current program requirements. |
| Destination | Traffic goes to a supported Amazon product detail page or Brand Store page. |
| Link structure | The campaign uses an unmodified Amazon Attribution tag and does not combine it with an Amazon Associates link. |
Brand Referral Bonus Eligibility Check
Are you selling through Amazon.com?.
- No: Do not apply the US program rules in this guide.
- Yes: Continue.
Does the account use the selling plan currently required by Amazon?
- No: Resolve the selling-plan requirement before forecasting credits.
- Yes: Continue.
Is the brand enrolled in Amazon Brand Registry?
- No: Review Amazon Brand Registry eligibility.
- Yes: Continue.
Does the connected account hold the current Brand Registry role required by Amazon?
- No or unclear: Confirm the account role in Seller Central.
- Yes: Continue.
Is Brand Referral Bonus enrollment active?
- No: Complete program enrollment.
- Yes: Continue.
Are the promoted product, marketplace, destination, and Attribution tag eligible?
- No: Correct the issue before launch.
- Yes: The campaign may qualify, subject to the current purchase and adjustment rules.
Eligibility must be checked for Amazon.com in Seller Central on publication day: The checklist below must match the current US Brand Referral Bonus terms in Seller Central. Access to Amazon Attribution alone does not confirm eligibility for Brand Referral Bonus credits.
Vendors may be able to use Amazon Attribution, but they should not assume that access to Attribution means they qualify for the seller-focused BRB credit. Vendor Central teams should verify the current account and marketplace rules directly with Amazon.
How Amazon Brand Referral Bonus Works from Click to Credit
The program follows a sequence rather than issuing an immediate rebate when someone clicks an ad.
1. The brand enrolls in BRB
Registering for Amazon Attribution alone does not automatically mean the brand is earning referral credits. The eligible seller must also enroll in Brand Referral Bonus through the current Seller Central program page.
2. The marketer creates an Amazon Attribution campaign
The advertiser sets up a campaign and one or more ad groups within the advertising console. Each ad group is assigned a unique Attribution tag to attribute activity to a specific strategy, publisher, placement, or creative.
3. The tag is added to an off-Amazon link
The generated tag is inserted into the destination URL of the externalโcampaign. Currently, Amazon supports product detail pages and Brand Store pages as Attributionโdestinations. Amazon also cautions its users against modifying the generated tag since suchโmodifications could impact measurement.
4. A customer clicks and shops on Amazon
Amazon Attribution uses a 14-day, last-touch model for click-attributed activity. The purchase must occur within 14 days of the qualifying click, and the most recent eligible click receives the conversion credit.
Amazon also states that an enrolled brand may receive a bonus on additional products purchased from the same brand within 14 days of the original ad click, subject to the programโs current qualification rules.
5. Amazon reviews whether the purchase qualifies
A purchase that is attributed and a completed purchase thatโis eligible for BRB are not necessarily the same thing. The final credit can be affected by whether you are enrolled, the link structure, the marketplace, product eligibility, the category rate,โreturns, cancellations, and the terms of the program.
6. Amazon processes and posts the credit
Amazon says that the processing period between the sale and the bonusโreceipt is usually two months. This time lets Amazon register cancellations and returns before the credit is subtracted fromโthe next round of referral fees.
Off-Amazon link (tagged) โ customer click โ attributed purchase โ qualified purchase review โ returns and cancellations adjustment โ estimatedโbonus โ finalized credit โ future referral-fee offset.
What Counts as Qualified Traffic and Purchases?
| More likely to qualify | Does not qualify or requires extra review |
|---|---|
| A properly tagged paid-search ad linking to an eligible Amazon product page | A link without an Amazon Attribution tag |
| A properly tagged social ad linking to the brandโs Amazon Store | A modified or broken Attribution tag |
| A tagged email link to a supported Amazon destination | Traffic sent to an unsupported landing page |
| A qualifying purchase within the applicable attribution window | A purchase outside the attribution window |
| Additional qualifying purchases from the same brand within the applicable window | A purchase from an unrelated brand |
| A direct brand campaign using its own Attribution link | An Attribution tag combined with an Amazon Associates link |
| Eligible off-Amazon marketing traffic | Sponsored Ads or other Amazon advertising traffic that is excluded from BRB |
Amazon says the bonus is not available for Amazon advertising such as sponsored or video ads. Its current tag guidance also says Attribution tags cannot be combined with Amazon Affiliates links.
Influencer and creator campaigns need special attention. Paid creators must clearly disclose any material connection to the brand. Place the disclosure with the endorsement, make it difficult to miss, and use language the audience will understand.
For broader channel planning, review how to choose external traffic channels for Amazon.
When and Where the Credit Appears
Amazon provides several ways to review the program:
- Amazonโs Attribution guide says sellers can review earned bonuses through the Transaction Details page in their seller account.
- Sellers can download a weekly Brand Referral Bonus Report through Seller Central.
- Enrolled sellers can also see BRB credit information beside campaign performance data in Amazon Attribution reporting.
- Approved API users can retrieve related reporting through the Amazon Ads API.
The marketing and finance organizationsโshould not think of a campaign-level estimate as final revenue. Reconcile the salesโthat get attributed to the campaign with the credit Amazon ultimately gives after its processing period.
An appropriate report flow is:
Campaign click โ attributed purchase โ BRB estimate โ cancellations and returns โ finalizedโcredit โ referral fee offset โ finance reconciliation
| Reporting item | What it represents | How finance should treat it |
|---|---|---|
| Attributed sales | Purchases linked to the Attribution campaign under the applicable measurement rules | Campaign measurement, not automatically a finalized BRB amount |
| Estimated bonus | The preliminary credit associated with currently qualifying sales | Forecast only; do not treat it as posted cash or final income |
| Returns and cancellations | Orders or order value removed or adjusted during processing | Deduct before final reconciliation |
| Finalized or posted credit | The credit Amazon has completed and applied under the program | Record against the relevant referral-fee period |
| Variance | Difference between the estimated and posted credit | Investigate rate, eligibility, returns, product, timing, and reporting causes |
Current Amazon Brand Referral Bonus Rates by Category
Amazon describes the Brand Referral Bonus as averaging approximately 10% of qualifying sales. The actual credit can vary by product category, price tier, shipping charges, gift-wrap charges, cancellations, returns, and other current program rules.
Amazon directs sellers to the Brand Referral Bonus Help page in Seller Central for the complete US category and tier schedule. Because that schedule was not available in the supplied materials, this article does not reproduce individual category rates.
A bonus rate should not be confused with the underlying referral fee. The base referral fee is a selling cost, while BRB is a separate credit calculated under the programโs rules. Sellers who need broader fee context can review Amazon referral fees by category.
How to Enroll and Create Trackable Links
The exact Seller Central labels may change, but the minimum implementation process is straightforward.
Step 1: Confirm the prerequisites
Verify the US marketplace, selling plan, Brand Registry status, account role, product eligibility, and active Brand Referral Bonus enrollment.
Step 2: Enroll in Brand Referral Bonus
Open the current program page in Seller Central and complete the enrollment process. Record the enrollment date and the account used.
Step 3: Create an Amazon Attribution campaign
Create a campaign for the products and external activity you want to measure. Use a clear name that connects the campaign to the channel, publisher, and reporting period.
Step 4: Generate a traceable tag
Create a separate tag for each campaign, placement, ad, or link that needs its own reporting. Do not alter Amazon-generated parameters.
Step 5: Apply the tag to a supported destination
Use the current destination types supported by Amazon. Test the complete URL before campaign launch.
Step 6: Validate reporting
Confirm that the first clicks appear, document the final URL, and retain the tag owner and launch date in the campaign tracking sheet. For a complete platform walkthrough, learn how to set up Amazon Attribution tags.
Tag Governance That Prevents Lost Attribution
A tag is only useful when the team knows where it was used. Create a tracking sheet with one row for every active destination.
| Field | Example |
|---|---|
| Campaign | Summer Launch 2026 |
| Channel | Paid social |
| Publisher | Meta |
| Placement | Instagram Reel 01 |
| Creative | Product Demo A |
| Destination | Product detail page |
| Attribution tag owner | Performance Marketing |
| Launch date | August 10, 2026 |
| Validation status | Clicks confirmed |
| BRB enrollment checked | Yes |
| Final URL tested | Yes |
Use a consistent structure that identifies the program, channel, publisher, campaign, placement, and launch date. One practical format is:
BRB_[channel]_[publisher]_[campaign]_[placement]_[YYYYMMDD]
Example:
BRB_Meta_Prospecting_SummerLaunch_Reel01_20260810
Avoid using one generic tag across every channel. Separate tags make it easier to identify where sales came from and where a broken link, incorrect destination, or reporting gap began.
Amazon Brand Referral Bonus ROI and Break-Even Economics
The bonus does not create additional attributed revenue. It changes the expected cost of acquiring that revenue by providing a possible referral-fee credit.
A useful model separates six figures:
- Attributed sales
- Ineligible sales, cancellations, and returns
- Eligible attributed sales
- Estimated BRB credit
- External marketing and operating costs
- Contribution after the expected credit
Use these formulas:
Eligible attributed sales
- Attributed sales โ ineligible purchases โ cancellations โ returns and adjustments
Estimated BRB credit
- Eligible attributed sales ร verified category bonus rate
Net media cost after the expected credit
- External media cost โ estimated BRB credit
Contribution before external media
- Eligible attributed sales ร contribution margin percentage
BRB-adjusted contribution after media
- Contribution before external media + estimated credit โ external media cost โ incremental operating costs
The final formula is usually more useful than adjusted ROAS because it shows whether the campaign leaves money after product costs and external marketing. Adjusted ROAS can become misleading when the expected credit approaches the media cost.
Worked Example
The following numbers are illustrative. They are not an industry benchmark or a SalesDuo client result.
| Input or output | Illustrative value | Calculation |
|---|---|---|
| Attributed sales | $10,000 | Campaign reporting |
| Returns and cancellations | 8% | Seller-specific assumption |
| Eligible attributed sales | $9,200 | $10,000 ร 92% |
| Applicable BRB rate | 10% | Illustrative rate; verify the real category rate |
| Estimated BRB credit | $920 | $9,200 ร 10% |
| External media cost | $1,800 | Campaign cost |
| Net media cost after expected credit | $880 | $1,800 โ $920 |
| Contribution margin | 30% | Seller-specific assumption |
| Contribution before external media | $2,760 | $9,200 ร 30% |
| BRB-adjusted contribution after media | $1,880 | $2,760 + $920 โ $1,800 |
| Incremental operating costs | $200 | Example covering creative, creator, agency, tools, or internal support |
The final amount may differ because of the applicable category rate, qualification rules, product mix, returns, cancellations, reporting lag, and other adjustments.
BRB-adjusted contribution after media and operating costs:
$2,760 + $920 โ $1,800 โ $200 = $1,680
The analysis should also include costs that do not appear in the Amazon Attribution report, such as:
- Creator or affiliate payments
- Agency management fees
- Creative production
- Landing-page or tracking tools
- Discounts and coupons
- Incremental customer service
- Internal campaign-management time
Run at least three scenarios before increasing spend:
- Conservative return rate and lower margin
- Expected operating case
- Higher return rate or lower applicable credit
The campaign should remain contribution-positive under reasonable conservative assumptions. The presence of a bonus alone is not enough to justify spending.
When the Program Is a Good Fit and When It Is Not
Use the following decision matrix before sending more external traffic to Amazon.
| Program may be a good fit when | Proceed carefully or pause when |
|---|---|
| The product has enough contribution margin to absorb external spend. | The product loses money before external advertising costs are added. |
| The listing is conversion-ready, accurate, and competitive. | The listing has weak content, poor reviews, an unstable price, or an unsuitable offer. |
| Inventory can support an increase in demand. | Inventory is low or likely to run out during the campaign. |
| The team can create, test, and document Attribution tags. | The same untracked link is reused across every publisher and placement. |
| The brand can reconcile estimates with posted credits. | Finance treats estimated BRB as immediate cash. |
| Traffic comes from measurable, relevant audiences. | The campaign prioritizes cheap clicks over purchase intent. |
| The campaign remains profitable without assuming an organic ranking lift. | The financial case depends on an unsupported ranking or conversion promise. |
| Creator links follow Amazonโs tag rules and FTC disclosure requirements. | Associates links and Attribution tags are combined without checking the restriction. |
Brands using Amazon Account Management across several acquisition sources should follow one reporting framework across campaigns. Review this Amazon cross-channel marketing strategy for broader channel planning while keeping BRB rates and credit reconciliation on this page.
BRB can improve the economics of Google, email, social, or creator activity, but the program should not replace basic listing readiness or a sound contribution model.
Brands planning paid social campaigns can review how to run Facebook and Meta ads to Amazon. Teams building creator programs can also learn how to find and recruit Amazon influencers.
Model Your Own Brand Referral Bonus Economics
Download the Amazon Brand Referral Bonus ROI & Reconciliation Worksheet to model attributed sales, returns, category rate, media cost, contribution margin, estimated credit, posted credit, and reporting variance.
Troubleshooting Missing or Lower-Than-Expected Credits
A missing credit does not always mean Amazon Attribution failed. Start with the earliest step in the process and move forward.
| Problem | What to check first | Next action |
|---|---|---|
| No Attribution clicks appear | Final URL, tag implementation, campaign launch status, and reporting date range | Test the destination and wait one to two days for initial reporting. |
| Publisher clicks are higher than Amazon clicks. | Date ranges, click-counting methods, redirects, and in-app browser behavior | Compare identical dates and confirm the final tagged URL loads correctly. |
| Clicks appear, but no sales appear. | Product assignment, promoted-product metrics, total metrics, and campaign destination | Review both promoted-product and brand-halo reporting. |
| Sales appear, but no BRB estimate appears. | BRB enrollment, seller eligibility, marketplace, product eligibility, and report timing | Confirm enrollment and check the current BRB report. |
| Credit is lower than expected. | Returns, cancellations, applicable category rate, price tiers, shipping, and gift wrap | Recalculate eligible sales using the finalized order data. |
| The creator link produces no BRB. | Whether the link is an Amazon Associates link or combines incompatible tags | Use the appropriate program-specific link and verify current terms. |
| The Store shows different numbers | Stores and Amazon Attribution may use different attribution methods | Do not expect both reports to match exactly. |
| Credit has not posted yet | Sale date and processing period | Allow for the stated processing period before escalating. |
| Social traffic reports unusually low conversions | In-app browser or Amazon app handoff | Review Amazonโs current guidance for social in-app traffic. |
Amazon recommends validating reporting after one to two days. Its guidance also explains that missing clicks may result from incorrect tag implementation, while missing product-level sales can result from campaign product assignments or the difference between promoted-product and total brand metrics.
In-app browsers can also affect measurement. Amazon notes that some social-platform sessions may not be measured as expected unless the customer is logged in or redirected correctly to the Amazon app.
Check missing credits in this order:
- Program enrollment
- Account and Brand Registry eligibility
- Attribution-tag implementation
- Supported destination
- Marketplace and product eligibility
- Purchase window and attribution logic
- Returns or cancellations
- Processing and reporting lag
- Amazon Associates or other link conflicts
- Estimated-versus-posted report differences
Operating Checklist for Marketing and Finance
Use one reporting period and one owner for the monthly reconciliation.
Marketing checks
- Confirm every active campaign uses the intended Attribution tag.
- Test every final destination after campaign edits.
- Compare publisher clicks with Amazon Attribution clicks.
- Review promoted-product and total-brand metrics separately.
- Record attributed sales and estimated BRB credit by campaign.
- Note campaigns paused, replaced, or moved to new destinations.
- Check creator disclosures and link-program compatibility.
Finance checks
- Record gross attributed sales.
- Remove known ineligible sales, cancellations, and returns.
- Apply the verified category bonus rate.
- Record estimated BRB credit.
- Record finalized or posted credit separately.
- Match the credit to the correct processing period.
- Record media, creator, agency, and operating costs.
- Investigate the variance between estimated and posted credit.
- Approve the final contribution calculation.
A simple reconciliation table can use these columns:
| Period | Campaign | Attributed sales | Eligible sales | Estimated credit | Posted credit | Returns | External cost | Variance | Owner note |
|---|
Do not compare August campaign spend directly with an August posted credit if that credit relates to sales generated in an earlier period. Store both the transaction month and posting month so finance can explain the timing difference.
Still seeing unexplained differences between attributed sales and posted credits? SalesDuo can review your tag structure, qualification checks, reporting flow, and campaign economics to identify where the gap may be occurring.
Turn the Credit into Better Unit Economics
Amazon Brand Referral Bonus can make qualifying external campaigns more efficient, but only when the brand meets the current eligibility rules, uses Amazon Attribution correctly, and evaluates the credit as part of a complete contribution model.
Start with the productโs real margin. Subtract returns, discounts, fulfillment costs, media spend, creator payments, and operating costs. Then add only the BRB credit that is supported by qualified sales and the applicable category rate. Finally, reconcile the estimate with the credit Amazon actually posts.
Planning off-Amazon campaigns but unsure whether the bonus will improve real contribution? SalesDuo provides Amazon advertising and external traffic management to review your Amazon Attribution setup, campaign economics, and reporting flow, then build a measurement plan your marketing and finance teams can reconcile.
Book a 1:1 growth call with SalesDuo.
Frequently Asked Questions About Amazon Brand Referral Bonus
1. What is Amazon Brand Referral Bonus?
It is a US Amazon program that provides eligible seller brand owners with category-based credits on qualifying sales driven by properly tagged non-Amazon marketing. Amazon applies the credits against future referral fees rather than paying them as an immediate advertising rebate.
2. How much is the Amazon Brand Referral Bonus?
Amazon describes the average as approximately 10% of qualifying sales, but the actual rate depends on the category, price, order details, and current program schedule. Check the complete live rate table in Seller Central before using a percentage in a forecast.
3. Who is eligible for Amazon Brand Referral Bonus?
Amazonโs public guidance identifies eligible sellers in the US store with a Professional selling plan and Brand Registry enrollment. The correct account role, products, marketplace, and program enrollment should also be confirmed in Seller Central.
4. How do I enroll in Amazon Brand Referral Bonus?
Open the current BRB program page in Seller Central and complete enrollment. Then use Amazon Attribution in the advertising console to create and apply tags to qualifying non-Amazon campaigns.
5. How long does it take to receive the bonus credit?
Amazon states that the program generally has a two-month processing period. This gives Amazon time to account for cancellations and returns before applying the finalized credit against future referral fees.
6. Is Brand Referral Bonus the same as Amazon Attribution?
No. Amazon Attribution is the measurement system that tracks activity from non-Amazon campaigns. Brand Referral Bonus is the separate incentive program that may issue fee credits on qualifying sales measured through those tags.
7. Does Brand Referral Bonus work with Amazon affiliate links?
Amazonโs current Attribution-tag guidance states that it does not support combining Attribution tags with Amazon Affiliate links. Treat Amazon Associates commissions and BRB credits as separate program structures and check the current terms before choosing the link used in a campaign.
8. Can I use Brand Referral Bonus with Facebook or Instagram ads?
Properly tagged, qualifying off-Amazon social campaigns may be measured with Amazon Attribution. Create the relevant campaign and ad groups, use the generated destination tag, and confirm that the brand, products, destination, and purchases meet current BRB rules.
9. Why is my Brand Referral Bonus missing or lower than expected?
Common causes include missing enrollment, an incorrect or altered tag, an unsupported destination, the wrong marketplace, ineligible purchases, returns, cancellations, category-rate differences, reporting delay, or an Amazon Associates link conflict.
10. Is Brand Referral Bonus the same as Brand Representative Bonus?
No. Brand Representative Bonus is a separate New Seller Incentive with different eligibility rules, sales thresholds, time limits, and credits. Do not use its percentages or qualification rules when calculating Brand Referral Bonus. Check the current New Seller Incentives documentation for that separate program.
About the Author
Giridhara Prasad is an Associate Director at SalesDuo and a startup enthusiast. With extensive expertise in e-commerce, this ex-Amazonian has been instrumental in driving success for businesses worldwide. Apart from his passion for creating innovative sales strategies and optimizing online retail experiences, Giri finds interest in watching and playing sports, including starting to play pickleball, traveling, and exploring political science, and philosophy.
